Effects and studied questions

Goal or question	Result	Confidence	Studies	Population studied	Key sources
Strength alongside training	These data do not justify preferring flaxseed oil for strength gains.No overall additional advantage in strength or body composition was obtained. Individual differences in muscle thickness depended on sex and the muscle measured.	2/5	1One direct trial described; the count refers to the named publication, not the entire literature.Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and resistance training in older adults ↗	51 previously untrained older adults: 28 men and 23 women	Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and resistance training in older adults ↗
Verbal fluency and attention	A small narrow effect on the test is possible; it is too early to expect overall memory improvement.Change in one verbal-fluency subscale: +0.30 versus +0.03 points. There was no convincing between-group difference in the numerous other cognitive measures.	2/5	1One direct trial described; the count refers to the named publication, not the entire literature.Supplementation with Flaxseed Oil Rich in Alpha-Linolenic Acid Improves Verbal Fluency in Healthy Older Adults ↗	60 adults aged 65–80 without a diagnosed cognitive disorder or depression	Supplementation with Flaxseed Oil Rich in Alpha-Linolenic Acid Improves Verbal Fluency in Healthy Older Adults ↗
Skin hydration and comfort	For skin, consider the specific product composition; the data remain preliminary.Improvements in individual hydration and itching ratings were reported. These are results for a special DAG oil; they cannot be applied to every ALA capsule.	2/5	1One direct trial described; the count refers to the named publication, not the entire literature.Effects of diacylglycerol-enriched alpha-linolenic acid oil on skin properties in mild skin discomfort: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study ↗	60 adults with mild skin discomfort; 58 in the per-protocol analysis	Effects of diacylglycerol-enriched alpha-linolenic acid oil on skin properties in mild skin discomfort: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study ↗
Everyday fatigue	There is no convincing advantage of these oils for reducing fatigue.No convincing between-group differences in subjective fatigue or the POMS2 measure were found; minimum p values were 0.102 and 0.15. This experiment provides no numerically confirmed energy gain.	2/5	1One direct trial described; the count refers to the named publication, not the entire literature.The Effects of α-Linolenic Acid Intake on Skin and Blood Vessel Health and Subjective Fatigue in Middle-Aged Japanese Females: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Comparative Trial ↗	120 Japanese women aged 45–65	The Effects of α-Linolenic Acid Intake on Skin and Blood Vessel Health and Subjective Fatigue in Middle-Aged Japanese Females: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Comparative Trial ↗
Bowel comfort and regularity during training	There is a preliminary signal in intensively training women for a specific oil-containing jelly.Changes in the constipation scale differed between groups (p=0.035); 9 g differed from control (p=0.020), while 3 g did not (p=0.073). The scale was assessed by the difference from the minimum value during the period, rather than only at the end of treatment.	1/5	1One direct trial described; the count refers to the named publication, not the entire literature.Effect of 8-week intake of the n-3 fatty acid-rich perilla oil on the gut function and as a fuel source for female athletes: a randomised trial ↗	36 Japanese female volleyball athletes, 12 per group	Effect of 8-week intake of the n-3 fatty acid-rich perilla oil on the gut function and as a fuel source for female athletes: a randomised trial ↗

The study count refers to the cited source. Reviews with overlapping trials and outcomes from one study are not added together.

Guidance for each goal

Strength alongside training

Confidence2/5

These data do not justify preferring flaxseed oil for strength gains.

Study findings. No overall additional advantage in strength or body composition was obtained. Individual differences in muscle thickness depended on sex and the muscle measured.

Studied regimen30 mL/day, approximately 14 g of ALAFlaxseed oil

Duration and population12 weeks; resistance training three times weekly51 previously untrained older adults: 28 men and 23 women

The confidence scale assesses the reliability of this conclusion, not the probability of an individual result.

Verbal fluency and attention

Confidence2/5

A small narrow effect on the test is possible; it is too early to expect overall memory improvement.

Study findings. Change in one verbal-fluency subscale: +0.30 versus +0.03 points. There was no convincing between-group difference in the numerous other cognitive measures.

Studied regimen3.7 g of oil/day, including 2.2 g of ALAFlaxseed oil

Duration and population12 weeks60 adults aged 65–80 without a diagnosed cognitive disorder or depression

The confidence scale assesses the reliability of this conclusion, not the probability of an individual result.

Skin hydration and comfort

Confidence2/5

For skin, consider the specific product composition; the data remain preliminary.

Study findings. Improvements in individual hydration and itching ratings were reported. These are results for a special DAG oil; they cannot be applied to every ALA capsule.

Studied regimen2.5 g of oil/day, containing 0.9 g of ALA as part of DAGFlaxseed oil enriched with diacylglycerols (DAG)

Duration and populationEight weeks60 adults with mild skin discomfort; 58 in the per-protocol analysis

The confidence scale assesses the reliability of this conclusion, not the probability of an individual result.

Everyday fatigue

Confidence2/5

There is no convincing advantage of these oils for reducing fatigue.

Study findings. No convincing between-group differences in subjective fatigue or the POMS2 measure were found; minimum p values were 0.102 and 0.15. This experiment provides no numerically confirmed energy gain.

Studied regimen0.97, 1.36 or 2.13 g of ALA/dayEdible oil blends

Duration and population12 weeks120 Japanese women aged 45–65

The confidence scale assesses the reliability of this conclusion, not the probability of an individual result.

Bowel comfort and regularity during training

Confidence1/5

There is a preliminary signal in intensively training women for a specific oil-containing jelly.

Study findings. Changes in the constipation scale differed between groups (p=0.035); 9 g differed from control (p=0.020), while 3 g did not (p=0.073). The scale was assessed by the difference from the minimum value during the period, rather than only at the end of treatment.

Studied regimen3 or 9 g of oil/day; this is oil weight, not pure ALAPerilla oil in jelly

Duration and populationEight weeks36 Japanese female volleyball athletes, 12 per group

The confidence scale assesses the reliability of this conclusion, not the probability of an individual result.

How to read the confidence scale 1–5

The rating considers study quality, directness and applicability to the stated group and regimen. It is an editorial scale, not the probability of an individual result.

Total intake reference values

Group	Amount	Type
Men aged 19 and over	1.6 g/day	AI_total_intake
Women aged 19 and over	1.1 g/day	AI_total_intake
Pregnancy	1.4 g/day	AI_total_intake
Breastfeeding	1.3 g/day	AI_total_intake

Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗

Safety and limitations

Flaxseed oil may cause digestive complaints and allergy. With medicines affecting coagulation, the combination needs checking; the clinical magnitude of bleeding risk for ALA has not been established. Dietary intake during pregnancy and safety of concentrated supplements are different questions. Dietary ALA reference values concern the entire diet. No UL has been established for ALA; this does not permit unlimited intake. With medicines affecting coagulation, supplement compatibility should be checked separately.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗ · Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease ↗ · Fish oil in various doses or flax oil in pregnancy and timing of spontaneous delivery: a randomised controlled trial ↗ · Alpha-linolenic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blind, placebo-controlled and randomized study: flaxseed vs. safflower seed ↗

Forms

Flaxseed, perilla, rapeseed and soybean oils: Fatty-acid mixtures; oil weight is not equivalent to ALA weight. Whole or ground seeds: Also contain protein, fiber and other components. DAG-enriched flaxseed oil: A special formulation studied for individual skin and nasal symptoms. EPA/DHA and alpha-lipoic acid: Different substances; they do not replace ALA when assessing its dietary intake and effects.

Food sources

The main dietary ALA sources are flaxseed, rapeseed and soybean oils, flax and chia seeds, and walnuts. As a reference, obtaining 1.6 g of ALA from the verified set requires approximately 3 g of flaxseed oil (27 kcal), 7 g of flax seeds (37 kcal) or 9 g of chia (44 kcal). ALA is distinguished here from EPA/DHA and the measure “18:3, unspecified.” Reference values mean adequate total intake, not supplementation on top of the diet. Contributions from minor sources are retained, but do not make them practical top food sources.

Food	Group	Amount	Serving	Calories	Sources
Flaxseed oilcold-pressed	Oils	53.368 g / 100 g	13.6 g · 7.258048 g · 120.22399999999999 kcal	884 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Rapeseed oiledible canola oil	Oils	9.137 g / 100 g	14 g · 1.27918 g · 123.76 kcal	884 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Soybean oiledible, for salads and cooking	Oils	6.789 g / 100 g	13.6 g · 0.923304 g · 120.22399999999999 kcal	884 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Chia seedsdried	Seeds and nuts	17.83 g / 100 g	28.35 g · 5.054804999999999 g · 137.781 kcal	486 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Black walnutsdried kernels	Seeds and nuts	2.677 g / 100 g	28.35 g · 0.7589295 g · 175.4865 kcal	619 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Edamamefrozen, prepared	Legumes	0.358 g / 100 g	77.5 g · 0.27745 g · 93.775 kcal	121 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Pumpkin seedsdried shelled kernels	Seeds and nuts	0.12 g / 100 g	30 g · 0.036 g · 167.7 kcal	559 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Pine nutsdried kernels	Seeds and nuts	0.112 g / 100 g	30 g · 0.0336 g · 201.9 kcal	673 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Peanut buttersmooth, with salt	Spreads	0.027 g / 100 g	20 g · 0.0054 g · 119.6 kcal	598 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
2% milkfluid, with vitamins A and D	Dairy products	0.008 g / 100 g	200 g · 0.016 g · 100 kcal	50 kcal / 100 g	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Flax seedsseeds or edible kernels	Seeds and nuts	22.815533980582522 g / 100 g	10.3 g · 2.35 g · 55.00200000000001 kcal	534 kcal / 100 g	Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Walnutsseeds or edible kernels	Seeds and nuts	9.065255731922399 g / 100 g	28.35 g · 2.57 g · 185.40900000000002 kcal	654 kcal / 100 g	Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗

Amount comparison

Choose a food target

Fewer calories among portions of a suitable size: Flaxseed oil — 3 g, about 27 kcal; Flax seeds — 8 g, about 43 kcal; Chia seeds — 9 g, about 44 kcal.

A reference for total intake from all sources; this is not a supplement dose for a specific effect. The top list is calculated from the verified set using up to 2.5 of the listed servings. Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗

Food	Substance and kcal per 100 g	Men aged 19 and over: 1.6 g	Women aged 19 and over: 1.1 g	Pregnancy: 1.4 g	Breastfeeding: 1.3 g	Source
Flaxseed oilcold-pressedOils	53.37 g884 kcal	3 g≈27 kcal	3 g≈27 kcal	3 g≈27 kcal	3 g≈27 kcal	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Flax seedsseeds or edible kernelsSeeds and nuts	22.82 g534 kcal	8 g≈43 kcal	5 g≈27 kcal	7 g≈37 kcal	6 g≈32 kcal	Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Chia seedsdriedSeeds and nuts	17.83 g486 kcal	9 g≈44 kcal	7 g≈34 kcal	8 g≈39 kcal	8 g≈39 kcal	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Walnutsseeds or edible kernelsSeeds and nuts	9.07 g654 kcal	18 g≈118 kcal	13 g≈85 kcal	16 g≈105 kcal	15 g≈98 kcal	Omega-3 Fatty Acids — Health Professional Fact Sheet (NIH ODS) ↗ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Rapeseed oiledible canola oilOils	9.14 g884 kcal	18 g≈159 kcal	13 g≈115 kcal	16 g≈141 kcal	15 g≈133 kcal	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Soybean oiledible, for salads and cookingOils	6.79 g884 kcal	24 g≈212 kcal	17 g≈150 kcal	21 g≈186 kcal	20 g≈177 kcal	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Black walnutsdried kernelsSeeds and nuts	2.68 g619 kcal	60 g≈371 kcal	42 g≈260 kcal	53 g≈328 kcal	49 g≈303 kcal	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Edamamefrozen, preparedLegumes	0.36 g121 kcal	447 g≈541 kcal · large amount	308 g≈373 kcal · large amount	392 g≈474 kcal · large amount	364 g≈440 kcal · large amount	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Pumpkin seedsdried shelled kernelsSeeds and nuts	0.12 g559 kcal	1,334 g≈7,457 kcal · large amount	917 g≈5,126 kcal · large amount	1,167 g≈6,524 kcal · large amount	1,084 g≈6,060 kcal · large amount	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Pine nutsdried kernelsSeeds and nuts	0.11 g673 kcal	1,429 g≈9,617 kcal · large amount	983 g≈6,616 kcal · large amount	1,250 g≈8,413 kcal · large amount	1,161 g≈7,814 kcal · large amount	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
2% milkfluid, with vitamins A and DDairy products	0.01 g50 kcal	20,000 g≈10,000 kcal · large amount	13,750 g≈6,875 kcal · large amount	17,500 g≈8,750 kcal · large amount	16,250 g≈8,125 kcal · large amount	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗
Peanut buttersmooth, with saltSpreads	0.03 g598 kcal	5,926 g≈35,437 kcal · large amount	4,075 g≈24,369 kcal · large amount	5,186 g≈31,012 kcal · large amount	4,815 g≈28,794 kcal · large amount	USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (SR28): ASCII data and documentation ↗

Studies

Publication	What was studied	Participants	Form and dose	Result
Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and resistance training in older adults ↗	Strength alongside training	51 previously untrained older adults: 28 men and 23 women	Flaxseed oil: 30 mL/day, approximately 14 g of ALA. 12 weeks; resistance training three times weekly	No overall additional advantage in strength or body composition was obtained. Individual differences in muscle thickness depended on sex and the muscle measured.
Supplementation with Flaxseed Oil Rich in Alpha-Linolenic Acid Improves Verbal Fluency in Healthy Older Adults ↗	Verbal fluency and attention	60 adults aged 65–80 without a diagnosed cognitive disorder or depression	Flaxseed oil: 3.7 g of oil/day, including 2.2 g of ALA. 12 weeks	Change in one verbal-fluency subscale: +0.30 versus +0.03 points. There was no convincing between-group difference in the numerous other cognitive measures.
Effects of diacylglycerol-enriched alpha-linolenic acid oil on skin properties in mild skin discomfort: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study ↗	Skin hydration and comfort	60 adults with mild skin discomfort; 58 in the per-protocol analysis	Flaxseed oil enriched with diacylglycerols (DAG): 2.5 g of oil/day, containing 0.9 g of ALA as part of DAG. Eight weeks	Improvements in individual hydration and itching ratings were reported. These are results for a special DAG oil; they cannot be applied to every ALA capsule.
The Effects of α-Linolenic Acid Intake on Skin and Blood Vessel Health and Subjective Fatigue in Middle-Aged Japanese Females: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Comparative Trial ↗	Everyday fatigue	120 Japanese women aged 45–65	Edible oil blends: 0.97, 1.36 or 2.13 g of ALA/day. 12 weeks	No convincing between-group differences in subjective fatigue or the POMS2 measure were found; minimum p values were 0.102 and 0.15. This experiment provides no numerically confirmed energy gain.
Effect of 8-week intake of the n-3 fatty acid-rich perilla oil on the gut function and as a fuel source for female athletes: a randomised trial ↗	Bowel comfort and regularity during training	36 Japanese female volleyball athletes, 12 per group	Perilla oil in jelly: 3 or 9 g of oil/day; this is oil weight, not pure ALA. Eight weeks	Changes in the constipation scale differed between groups (p=0.035); 9 g differed from control (p=0.020), while 3 g did not (p=0.073). The scale was assessed by the difference from the minimum value during the period, rather than only at the end of treatment.

Sources

LINOLENIC ACID

Main conclusion

Potential benefits

What was studied

How to obtain it from food

Effects and studied questions

Guidance for each goal

Strength alongside training

Verbal fluency and attention

Skin hydration and comfort

Everyday fatigue

Bowel comfort and regularity during training

Safety and limitations

Forms

Food sources

Studies

Sources